| Moving Beyond “Knowledge for | | | | knowledge-sharing environment. The initiative |
| Knowledge’s sake” | | | | must define several processes in order to enable |
| Quick ± in 25 words or less, define knowledge | | | | the cultural transition. The study showed that the |
| management. Can't do it? You're not alone. | | | | development of social capital as an infrastructure |
| There are an assortment of disciplines that | | | | for knowledge transfer is a critical facilitator of |
| have influenced the field of Knowledge | | | | knowledge transfer within organisations. Combining |
| Management (KM) thinking and praxis – the | | | | members’ knowledge resources can lead to |
| most prominent are philosophy, in defining | | | | collaborative knowledge creation that has the |
| knowledge; cognitive science (in understanding | | | | potential to limit the economic and knowledge |
| knowledge workers); social science (in | | | | gaps that exist within Egyptian organisations. |
| understanding motivation, people, interactions, | | | | |
| culture and environment); management science (in | | | | Knowledge sharing / lessons learned / storytelling |
| optimising operations and integrating them within | | | | |
| the enterprise); information science (in building | | | | U.S. Army has installed |
| knowledge-related capabilities); knowledge | | | | knowledge sharing as a standard part of its work |
| engineering (in eliciting and codifying knowledge); | | | | in both training and real duty in the form of its |
| artificial intelligence (in automating routine and | | | | well known after-action reviews. No effort is |
| knowledge-intensive work) and economics (in | | | | considered complete until it has been reviewed |
| determining priorities). As a result, there are | | | | and its lessons obtained, including the lessons |
| enormous working definitions of KM and | | | | learned from failures. |
| emergent philosophies circulating in the literature | | | | During the U.S. military efforts |
| and around corporations of the world. | | | | in Bosnia, lessons learned were distributed on a |
| One cannot get a clear | | | | frequent basis. Because such observations as, |
| understanding and definition of what KM is without | | | | “avoid snow-covered roads with no vehicle |
| studying the various concepts of knowledge and | | | | tracks, as they are probably mined” were |
| information (including data), as well as the tacit, | | | | credited with saving lives, members of other |
| implicit, and explicit knowledge dimensions. Much of | | | | cooperating armies frequently requested a copy |
| the still existing confusion that surrounds the topic | | | | of the latest “lessons learned.” |
| of KM is based on the varied scholars’ | | | | Openness builds confidence and |
| interpretations and suggestions distinguishing the | | | | sharing stories openly builds confidence in |
| terms information and knowledge as well as the | | | | employees and in the organisation as a whole. This |
| terms tacit, implicit, and explicit. | | | | openness also leads to the development of trust |
| What is knowledge? | | | | that can support innovation. This is done by |
| Some authors appear to try | | | | individuals using stories to build confidence in |
| to avoid the epistemological debate on the | | | | themselves, the direction of their team or the |
| definition of knowledge by comparing data, | | | | future of the company. In these cases the moral |
| information, and knowledge. However, von Krogh | | | | of the story could be “We did it before and |
| et al. (2000) or Kakabadse et al.’s (2003) | | | | we can do it again”, or “Look how bright |
| understanding of knowledge as ‘justified true | | | | the future can be.” |
| belief” goes back to Michael Polanyi’s | | | | Companies can further develop |
| original work (we know more than we can | | | | the organisation and its employees if people are |
| express) (Polanyi 1958), an epistemological position | | | | given the opportunity to reflect on both the |
| which is acknowledged to have grown out of | | | | positive and negative realities of their workplace. |
| Plato’s discourses (Meno, Phaedo and | | | | Learning from each others past mistakes or |
| Theaetetus). This definition has been particularly | | | | successes through stories can build awareness, |
| adopted by Western philosophy (Nonaka and | | | | skill and confidence. The “glory days” tales |
| Takeuchi, 1995), which provides a comprehensive | | | | or “war stories” you hear informally or |
| taxonomy of knowledge models, Plato’s | | | | formally throughout a company present learning |
| concept was also debated from Aristotle, one of | | | | opportunities without having to actually go through |
| his students, throughout continental rationalism, as | | | | the experience. This is what NASA did to convey |
| well as from German philosophy (Kant 1965; Marx | | | | the culture of excitement around advancing space |
| 1976; Hegel 1977); British empiricism (Locke 1987) | | | | exploration to a young generation. |
| to twentieth-century philosophers (Dewey 1929; | | | | Texas Instruments is a |
| Sartre 1956; Habermas 1972; Tsoukas 1996; cited | | | | company that is extremely serious about |
| in Kakabdse et al. 2003, p. 77). | | | | encouraging re-use of ideas and design by its |
| The above discourse implies | | | | engineers. To encourage this process Texas |
| that knowledge itself is a very multifaceted | | | | Instruments periodically holds a contest within the |
| concept with many different variations and | | | | company to collect the best story based on |
| definitions. Based on the fact that the nature of | | | | “We didn’t build it here but we used it |
| knowledge is widely acknowledged on differing | | | | anyway.” Teams within Texas Instruments |
| epistemological stands taken from the individual | | | | scramble to come up with the best story on |
| contributors, but led ultimately to the | | | | design re-use. They then share the story with |
| following definition of ‘knowledge’: | | | | others at an awards dinner. The stories and the |
| “Knowledge is a fluid mix | | | | activities of the company serve to foster their |
| of framed experience, values, contextual | | | | knowledge-sharing culture. In a well known |
| information, and expert insight that provides a | | | | example, Texas Instruments has achieved $1.5 |
| framework for evaluating and incorporating new | | | | billion in additional wafer fabrication capacity as a |
| experiences and information. It originates and is | | | | result of their knowledge-sharing program. |
| applied in the minds of knowers. In organisations | | | | Knowledge work and knowledge workers |
| it often becomes embedded, not only in | | | | Early literature on knowledge |
| documents or repositories but also in | | | | work tended to take a Taylorist view, separating |
| organisational routines, processes, practices | | | | ‘thinking’ and ‘doing’ and |
| and norms.” (Davenport and Prusak 2000, p. | | | | comparing it with the fundamentally different but |
| 5). | | | | more familiar, type of manual work or blue collar |
| Knowledge: Tacit/Implicit/Explicit | | | | work (Drucker, 1999; Schultze, 2000). Task |
| ‘Tacit’ knowledge is | | | | performance within knowledge work cannot be |
| not expressible and can in no way be made | | | | compared with the sequential prescribed |
| directly explicit or in other words codified into | | | | performance of manual work, by claiming that |
| rules and formulations (e.g. the way a project | | | | knowledge work is the exact opposite. |
| manager behaviourally interacts or communicates | | | | Contemporary concept of knowledge work |
| during a conflict-solving process). In other words it | | | | integrates doing and thinking and involves an |
| has to do with an individual’s aptitude for | | | | uninterrupted cycle of re-use and creation of |
| doing things or even cognitively thinking about | | | | knowledge, which can be compared to a process |
| things. | | | | of learning by doing. It involves a large amount of |
| ‘Implicit’ knowledge is | | | | tacit knowledge (Schultze, 2000). |
| expressible and by applying appropriate knowledge | | | | A knowledge worker in |
| management practices it has the chance to be | | | | today's workforce is an individual that is valued |
| made explicit. Thus, implicit knowledge is then | | | | for their ability to interpret information within a |
| transferred into explicit knowledge in a direct way. | | | | specific subject area. They will often advance the |
| This process of transferring can be observed | | | | overall understanding of that subject through |
| through the propagation, application, the | | | | focused analysis, design and/or development. |
| amalgamation or the interpretation of explicit | | | | They use research skills to define problems and |
| knowledge. Interestingly, from time to time, the | | | | to identify alternatives. The term was first coined |
| terms ‘tacit’ and ‘implicit’ are | | | | by Peter Drucker (1959), as one who works |
| used interchangeably.. | | | | primarily with information or one who develops |
| ‘Explicit’ knowledge is | | | | and uses knowledge in the workplace. Toffler |
| expressed implicit knowledge. There is enough | | | | (1990) observed that typical knowledge workers |
| evidence from the literature as well as from | | | | (especially R&D scientists and engineers) in |
| practice, suggesting that the two terms | | | | the age of knowledge economy must have some |
| ‘explicit knowledge’ and | | | | system at their disposal to create, process and |
| ‘information’ have exactly the same | | | | enhance their own knowledge. In some cases |
| meaning. In other words, explicit knowledge should | | | | they would also need to manage the knowledge |
| be regarded as implicit knowledge, which when | | | | of their co-workers. Knowledge workers engage |
| expressed becomes information. However, | | | | in ‘’peer-to-peer’’ knowledge |
| whereas the management of knowledge is mostly | | | | sharing across organisational and company |
| understood as the management of the | | | | boundaries, forming networks of expertise. |
| processes, which can support the conversion of | | | | Knowledge Management (KM) Strategy |
| employees’ individual knowledge into overall | | | | Two philosophies for managing |
| organisational implicit knowledge, the management | | | | knowledge have evolved over the past decade. |
| of explicit knowledge is understood as the | | | | Firstly, the codification or explicit-oriented |
| management of knowledge-objects typically held | | | | approach, which aligns strategy with information |
| as information in the organisation’s information | | | | management efforts, such as embedding |
| base or systems in form of data records or | | | | knowledge in documents, which can be stored and |
| documents. | | | | reused. Secondly, the personalisation strategy or |
| The history of KM | | | | tacit-oriented KM style emphasises the human and |
| Knowledge management (KM) | | | | hence more complex part of tacit or implicit |
| is currently receiving significant attention, from | | | | knowledge. Attempts to externalise and transfer |
| both academics and practitioners, and is being | | | | this type of knowledge are based on |
| addressed by broad range of academic literature | | | | communication strategies, both faceto- face and |
| and popular press. The study of human | | | | technology supported, by facilitating informal |
| knowledge has been central subject matter of | | | | networks. |
| philosophy and epistemology since the ancient | | | | Traditionally, organisations tend |
| Greeks and western philosophers. Eastern | | | | to focus on the tangible part of knowledge, |
| philosophers, Tzu and Confucius in China and their | | | | introducing information and communication |
| contemporaries in India, have an equally long and | | | | systems to capture and document knowledge, |
| well-documented tradition of emphasising | | | | even though these efforts might never have |
| knowledge and comprehension for the conduct of | | | | been explicitly termed a ‘KM strategy’ or |
| spiritual and secular life. The first attempts at KM, | | | | aligned with organisational strategy. In recent |
| such as capture, storage and retrieval, began with | | | | years, however, KM researchers have realised |
| the Cuneiform language in about 3000 BC. | | | | that human KM is the challenge, which has revived |
| A number of management | | | | the notion of social networks. |
| theorists have contributed to the evolution of KM, | | | | Some other knowledge |
| among them such notables as Peter Drucker, Paul | | | | management strategies for companies include: |
| Strassmann, and Peter Senge in the United | | | | - rewards (as a means of motivating for |
| States. Drucker and Strassmann have stressed | | | | knowledge sharing) |
| the growing importance of information and explicit | | | | - storytelling (as a means of transferring tacit |
| knowledge as organisational resources, and Senge | | | | knowledge) |
| has focused on the "learning organisation," a | | | | - after action reviews |
| cultural dimension of managing knowledge. Chris | | | | - knowledge mapping (a map of knowledge |
| Argyris, Christoper Bartlett, and Dorothy | | | | repositories within a company accessible by all) |
| Leonard-Barton of Harvard Business School have | | | | - communities of practice |
| all examined diverse aspects of managing | | | | - best practice transfer |
| knowledge. In fact, Leonard-Barton’s | | | | - collaborative technologies (groupware, etc) |
| well-known case study of Chaparral Steel, a | | | | - knowledge repositories (databases, etc) |
| company which has had an effective KM strategy | | | | - measuring and reporting intellectual capital (a |
| in place since the mid-1970s, inspired the research | | | | way of making explicit knowledge for companies) |
| documented in her Wellsprings of Knowledge. | | | | - social software (wikis, social bookmarking, blogs, |
| The 1980s also saw the | | | | etc) |
| development of systems for managing knowledge | | | | |
| that relied on work done in artificial intelligence and | | | | KM (CoPs) Strategy: A success story |
| expert systems, giving us such concepts as | | | | Communities of practice (CoPs) |
| "knowledge acquisition," "knowledge engineering," | | | | are designated networks of people who share |
| "knowledge-base systems, and computer-based | | | | information and knowledge. Community members |
| ontologies. Knowledge management-related articles | | | | exchange ideas, collaborate, and learn from one |
| began appearing in journals like Sloan Management | | | | another in both face-to-face and virtual |
| Review, Organisational Science, Harvard Business | | | | environments. For example: |
| Review, and others, and the first books on | | | | Caterpillar, Inc. is the world's |
| organisational learning and knowledge management | | | | No. 1 producer of earthmoving machinery and a |
| were published (for example, Senge’s The | | | | leading supplier of agricultural equipment. The |
| Fifth Discipline and Sakaiya’s The Knowledge | | | | organisation's strategic driver for communities |
| Value Revolution). | | | | was just-in-time learning. In the past, Caterpillar |
| By 1990, a number of | | | | employees attended in-class training on topics |
| management consulting firms had begun in-house | | | | they might or might not find relevant to their daily |
| knowledge management programs, and several | | | | jobs. By constrast, CoPs provide a platform |
| well known U.S., European, and Japanese firms had | | | | through which employees can obtain timely |
| instituted focused knowledge management | | | | answers to current issues or problems. |
| programs. Perhaps the most widely read work to | | | | Communities at Caterpillar are very narrowly |
| date is Ikujiro Nonaka’s and Hirotaka | | | | focused in order to maintain a direct relationship |
| Takeuchi’s The Knowledge-Creating Company: | | | | between community activities and daily work. |
| How Japanese Companies Create the Dynamics | | | | Communities are a way for Caterpillar employees |
| of Innovation (1995). | | | | to connect with the organisation's global partners, |
| By the mid-1990s, knowledge | | | | customers, or teams in a virtual environment. |
| management initiatives were flourishing, thanks in | | | | Caterpillar currently has approximately 3,500 CoPs |
| part to the Internet. Knowledge management, | | | | with about 40,000 unique participants. |
| which appears to offer a highly desirable | | | | Approximately 7,000 Caterpillar dealers also |
| alternative to failed TQM and business process | | | | participate in the organisation's CoPs. |
| re-engineering initiatives, has become big business | | | | Knowledge management as "doing the right thing" |
| for such major international consulting firms as | | | | (effectiveness) instead of "doing things right" |
| Ernst & Young, Arthur Andersen, and | | | | (efficiency). |
| Booz-Allen & Hamilton. | | | | The relatively stable and |
| What is KM? | | | | unchanging environment of the past allowed the |
| Murray E. Jennex (2005) tells | | | | luxury of predicting, pre-defining and |
| us that during a conversation he had with a fellow | | | | pre-determining the future based on past data. |
| engineer, he made the comment that it was too | | | | Businesses could once define their business |
| bad we could not get back to the moon. Murrray, | | | | models, business practices and business value |
| of course, agreed and expressed the desire that | | | | propositions - thereafter, the key challenge |
| the government would allocate funds for it. His | | | | remained that of optimisation for increased |
| friend then surprised him by saying it was not | | | | efficiencies: of 'doing things right'. |
| money that was the issue but that what really | | | | However, changing customer |
| prevents the US from getting back to the moon | | | | trends, competitive products and services and |
| is that they do not remember how to build | | | | changing societal and governmental pressures |
| Saturn V rockets, Apollo capsules, and Lunar | | | | make the existing business models, business |
| Modules. It seems after the end of the Apollo | | | | practices and business value propositions obsolete. |
| programme; management ordered all the plans | | | | Most of us are aware of the bloodbath in the |
| put on microfiche and all but a few of the paper | | | | desktop computer industry that eliminated many |
| copies destroyed. This was done, however, when | | | | companies competing for business worldwide. |
| there was talk of going back to the moon and | | | | However, some companies realised that the only |
| engineers went to retrieve the plans, the usable | | | | performance outcomes that matter are the ones |
| paper copies could be found, and everyone who | | | | the customers really care about. They have been |
| knew how to build the rockets, capsules, and | | | | savoir-faire in tailoring and growing their customer |
| modules were either dead or retired. Additionally, | | | | value propositions around what the customers |
| when the younger engineers began to reverse | | | | really needed rather than what they wanted to |
| engineer these components, they were stymied | | | | sell to customers. Dell has been an agile player |
| because they did not understand the technology | | | | that has been able to refine and play the game of |
| from that time; technology had advanced so | | | | 'doing the right thing' again and again, first in |
| much that the engineers had not been taught | | | | desktops and later in web hosting, printers, PDAs |
| some of the fundamental issues faced by | | | | and storage. In the longer run, companies that can |
| engineers of that time. In other words, they had | | | | figure out the 'next right thing' and prepare well in |
| forgotten the knowledge from the experience of | | | | advance to ride the next wave will be more |
| solving the problems that prevented moon flights. | | | | effective in the longer run. However, it goes |
| The above does in fact show | | | | without saying that 'doing the thing right' also |
| that the space program is an example of failed | | | | matters once you have figured out what the |
| KM. They attempted to store relevant knowledge | | | | next cash cow will be. |
| but when it came time to retrieve it, it could not | | | | One central measure of |
| be retrieved and applied to the current decision- | | | | organisational effectiveness is the creation and |
| making activity due to media volatility and a lack | | | | continuance of a measurable competitive |
| of capturing the relevant context that makes the | | | | advantage. Many broad initiatives such as |
| critical knowledge usable. | | | | efficiency, core competency advancement, |
| Why do we need KM? | | | | actualisation of customer-centric products and |
| Why do we need knowledge | | | | services, and limitation of the fixed costs of doing |
| management? We need KM because we need a | | | | business can help to achieve a sustainable |
| proper process to help organisations identify, | | | | competitive advantage within the marketplace. |
| capture, store, and retrieve critical knowledge. We | | | | Thus, the effective management of knowledge |
| need KM processes to help organisations deal with | | | | understandably has the capacity to deeply impact |
| changing storage strategies. We need KM to help | | | | the way a firm does business from the minor |
| us deal with the transience of knowledge workers. | | | | details of daily operations to the broadest |
| We need KM processes to help organisations | | | | strategic decision-making processes. |
| manage a glut of knowledge. Ultimately, we need | | | | Organisational Learning/Learning Organisation |
| KM to help organisations make sense of what | | | | Argyris (1977) defines |
| they know, to know what they know, and to | | | | organisational learning (OL) as the process of |
| effectively use what they know. The whole point | | | | "detection and correction of errors." In his view |
| of knowledge management (KM) is to make sure | | | | organisations learn through individuals acting as |
| that the knowledge present in an organisation is | | | | agents for them: "The individuals' learning activities, |
| applied productively for the benefit of that | | | | in turn, are facilitated or inhibited by an ecological |
| organisation. | | | | system of factors that may be called an |
| An organisation’s | | | | organisational learning system". |
| emergency preparedness activities might involve | | | | Huber (1991) considers four |
| collaborative efforts between various entities. A | | | | constructs as integrally linked to OL: knowledge |
| vital activity is responding to an actual crisis | | | | acquisition, information distribution, information |
| situation that hits one or more of the member | | | | interpretation, and organisational memory. He |
| organisations/entities. For some organisations, | | | | clarifies that learning need not be conscious or |
| responding to a crisis situation in done within a | | | | intentional. Further, learning does not always |
| consortium environment. Managing knowledge | | | | increase the learner's effectiveness, or even |
| across the various entities involved in such efforts | | | | potential effectiveness. Moreover, learning need |
| is critical. This includes having the right set of | | | | not result in observable changes in behaviour. |
| information that is timely, relevant, and is | | | | Moreover, by taking the view |
| governed by an effective communication process | | | | of the organisation as a learning system, Senge |
| given such organisational structures, and the need | | | | contributed meaningful new insights. In his highly |
| to manage knowledge in these environments | | | | cited publication ‘The Fifth Discipline’ |
| through effective Knowledge Management | | | | (1990) he argues that the organisations that will |
| Systems (KMS). | | | | truly excel in the future will be the ones that |
| KM efforts typically focus on | | | | discover how to tap people's commitment and |
| organisational objectives such as improved | | | | capacity to learn at all levels within an organisation. |
| performance, competitive advantage, innovation, | | | | Senge believes that the ‘five component |
| the sharing of lessons learned, and | | | | technologies’ are converging to create learning |
| continuous improvement of the organisation. KM | | | | organisations: Personal Master - Shared Vision - |
| efforts may overlap with Organisational | | | | Team Learning - Mental Models - Systems |
| Learning and may be distinguished from that by | | | | Thinking |
| a greater focus on the management of | | | | In his work ‘Disciplines of |
| knowledge as a strategic asset and a focus on | | | | Organisational Learning: Contributions and |
| encouraging the sharing of knowledge. KM efforts | | | | Critiques’, Easterby-Smith (1997) argues |
| can help individuals and groups to share valuable | | | | against most scholars’ attempts to create a |
| organisational insights, to reduce redundant work, | | | | single framework for understanding and explaining |
| to avoid reinventing the wheel per se, to reduce | | | | the management of OL. By reviewing the most |
| training time for new employees, to retain | | | | meaningful literature in the field he identified the |
| intellectual capital as employees turnover in an | | | | following six disciplinary perspectives: psychology |
| organisation, and to adapt to changing | | | | and organisational development, sociology, |
| environments and markets. | | | | management science, strategy, production |
| Implications of Global cultural diversity on KM | | | | management, as well as cultural anthropology. |
| Global cultural diversity has | | | | Ang & Joseph (1996) |
| profound implications for the effective design and | | | | contrast Organisational Learning and Learning |
| implementation of knowledge management (KM) | | | | Organisation in terms of process versus structure. |
| projects. Thus, the view on global cultural diversity | | | | They define OL as the ability of an organisation to |
| recognises the existence of different | | | | gain insight and understanding from experience |
| organisational contexts and great care must be | | | | through experimentation, observation, analysis, |
| taken when making assumptions about patterns | | | | and a willingness to examine both successes and |
| of organisational performance and innovations | | | | failures. However, the managers' role in the |
| (Avgerou, 2002). For example, the wide gap in | | | | Learning Organisation, Senge (1990) argues, is that |
| the availability and use of ICT across the world, | | | | of a designer, teacher, and steward who can build |
| and the influences ICT exerts on globalisation, | | | | shared vision and challenge prevailing mental |
| raise questions about the feasibility and desirability | | | | models. He/she is responsible for building |
| of efforts to implement the development of ICT | | | | organisations where people are continually |
| through the transfer of best practices from | | | | expanding their capabilities to shape their future -- |
| Western industrialised countries to developing | | | | that is, leaders are responsible for learning. |
| countries, and whether organisations can utilise | | | | Implementation of KM: The Xerox Case |
| such ICT in accordance with the socio-cultural | | | | Xerox was set out to be as |
| requirements of the contexts (Avgerou, 2002). | | | | educated as possible about knowledge |
| Reliable research concludes that | | | | management (KM). The organisation has spent |
| diversity and local context does matter, and that | | | | considerable financial resources and time to codify |
| the global techniques employed in western | | | | the collective knowledge through its research, |
| industrialised countries should not be implemented | | | | consortium work, and sponsorship of research. |
| mechanically in developing countries without | | | | During a study on its |
| consideration for the local context. Further, gender | | | | representative’s behaviour, Xerox noticed |
| considerations have been shown to be of great | | | | that most of the causes of breakdowns in the |
| importance in the successful adoption of ICT. | | | | machines they sold couldn’t be found in any |
| The Arab region Knowledge Evolution | | | | of the firm’s record of cases. |
| Recently, there have been a | | | | However representatives, thanks to their own |
| couple of noticeable groundbreaking models | | | | knowledge and the knowledge they shared |
| pursued by Dubai and Qatar to transubstantiate | | | | among each other during lunch breaks, were able |
| the region’s population into a | | | | to solve those problems. |
| ‘‘knowledge society.’’ Both of | | | | The solution, called Eureka |
| these initiatives deemed human development a | | | | project, was the creation of: An electronic |
| central goal and targeted narrowing the | | | | database, in which they stored best practices, |
| knowledge gap between the Arab region and the | | | | ideas and solutions; an intranet for representatives |
| rest of the world. At the latest Middle East World | | | | to make knowledge accessible to the whole |
| Economic Forum, held in Jordan in May 2007, | | | | company and facilitate the information sharing. |
| Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, | | | | The validity of the KM Eureka |
| launched an endowment of ten billion US dollars | | | | project’s implementation is strictly linked to |
| for an avant garde foundation called the | | | | the economic resources that it succeeds in |
| ‘‘Mohammed Bin Rashid Al Maktoum | | | | recovering and saving up. In that perspective, the |
| Foundation’’ to promote knowledge in the | | | | project Eureka made the Xerox Corporation save |
| region. | | | | about the 5-10% on the job developed from the |
| The second major initiative | | | | representatives and about $10 million on the cost |
| occurred in Qatar, where the government | | | | of pieces or replaced machines. |
| gathered leading world university representatives | | | | Poor Knowledge Management can kill |
| into a center for knowledge-creation called | | | | On September 30, 1999, a |
| ‘‘Education City,’’ which is | | | | nuclear criticality accident occurred at a uranium |
| headquarters for the ‘‘Qatar | | | | processing plant operated by JCO Co., Ltd. |
| Foundation.’’ The main objective is to | | | | (hereinafter referred to as JCO) in Tokai village, |
| form the most powerful educational and research | | | | Ibaraki Prefecture. A solution of enriched uranium |
| hub in the Middle East. | | | | in an amount several times more than the |
| One of these efforts may | | | | specified mass limit had been poured directly into |
| lead to Beit Elhikma II or may produce | | | | a precipitation tank bypassing a dissolution tank |
| distinguished geniuses such as Averroes | | | | and buffer column intended to avoid criticality. This |
| (ibn-Rushd) (1126-1198), who created the first | | | | action was in contravention of the legally |
| domestic and exotic knowledge hybridisation | | | | approved criticality control measures. Three JCO |
| model that is not only admired, but also accepted, | | | | plant workers were exposed to high levels of |
| by Western societies. Averroes published his | | | | radiation in the accident. This has resulted in the |
| commentaries on Aristotle based on the epistemic | | | | death of two of the workers making this an |
| fundament that ‘‘knowledge is the | | | | unprecedented nuclear accident in Japan which has |
| conformity of the object and the | | | | developed nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. |
| intellect.’’ The comeback of the Arab | | | | Except for what are |
| mind in a systematic ‘‘brain gain’’ | | | | sometimes called ‘Act of God’, any |
| program is needed as happened in India. | | | | problems arising at a nuclear plant originate in |
| To align the intellectual | | | | some way in human error. However, unless there |
| capacities with new business requirements, the | | | | is a sufficient set of vulnerability causal factors |
| region must work on different fronts to invest in | | | | and one or more triggering causal factors, neither |
| expatriates, to leverage its strategies to reverse | | | | an instance of human error nor a consequential |
| the ‘‘brain drain’’ and to fill the | | | | event occurs. Based on the systemic analysis of |
| knowledge gap at both intra- and inter-regional | | | | the criticality accident, it was proved that its root |
| levels. To keep the momentum of the | | | | cause was inappropriate knowledge management |
| ‘‘Knowledge Society” paradigm, the | | | | - combination of (1) inadequate risk awareness by |
| sustainability of the paradigm needs uninterrupted | | | | the top management and (2) “kaizen” |
| diffusion and infusion of innovations and | | | | (production improvement) drives. |
| continuously relevant knowledge, which may need | | | | Conclusion |
| restructuring at the organisational level. | | | | Today’s more balanced |
| The chimera of | | | | view of KM is therefore a combination of |
| ‘‘epistemic sovereignty’’ is an | | | | managing explicit information resources as well as |
| outmoded self-centeredness that is not | | | | managing the working environment and people so |
| acceptable in the current globalised marketplace. | | | | that tacit knowledge is more readily developed, |
| More pointedly, epistemological pluralism is required | | | | shared and exploited. KM is well beyond the |
| for success in the realm of the | | | | “fad” stage – from previous surveys |
| ‘‘knowledge society’’. A | | | | that showed two thirds of senior managers |
| ‘‘co-opetitive’’ relationship is | | | | regarded KM as a fad, today it is recognised as |
| considered crucial to build the ‘‘knowledge | | | | fundamental and a contributor of value. It does |
| society’’. The Arab world can revert | | | | add value to an organisation’s bottom line, |
| from the status of ‘‘knowledge | | | | and though difficult to prove directly, new |
| entropy’’ to the former ‘‘golden | | | | measuring instruments have helped stakeholders |
| age’’ of Islam – if the principles of | | | | identify the sources of value more clearly. |
| modern knowledge are effectively leveraged and | | | | KM becomes more pervasive, |
| crossbred with traditions to result in a lucrative | | | | a knowledge ‘lens’ and KM perspective |
| ‘‘knowmadism’’. | | | | are being applied to wide range of management |
| Knowledge transfer and social capital: the case of | | | | and business processes. Total quality |
| Corporate Egypt | | | | management, customer relationship management |
| Most of the knowledge related | | | | and risk management are examples of where |
| initiatives in Egypt have been at the country and | | | | such approaches have given stakeholders new |
| community levels with limited emphasis at the | | | | insights and methods improves through the fusion |
| organisational level. According to the World | | | | of existing methods with good KM practice. |
| Development report for Africa, Egypt needs to | | | | KM was very much a |
| work fast in order to increase its knowledge | | | | practitioner led discipline and only belatedly has the |
| base, to invest in educating the people about | | | | academic community caught up. However, there |
| knowledge management, and to take advantage | | | | are now several business schools with active |
| of the new technologies for acquiring and | | | | programmes of research. We are constantly |
| disseminating knowledge. The report emphasises | | | | learning more about KM in different contexts. KM |
| the importance of (1) instituting policies that enable | | | | is also considered a side-show until it is fully |
| them to narrow the knowledge gaps that | | | | integrated into the strategic planning and decision |
| separate poor countries from rich countries; (2) | | | | processes of an organisation, which means the |
| promoting collaborations among the | | | | explicit recognition of knowledge, and KM in the |
| organisations—governments, multilateral | | | | corporate strategy and a clear articulation of its |
| institutions, nongovernmental organisations, and | | | | contribution to the business bottom line (including |
| the private sector—in order to work together; | | | | non-financial objectives). |
| and (3) nurturing a knowledge sharing culture. | | | | Both the literature on |
| A study performed on 41 | | | | organisational learning and knowledge management |
| public/private organisations in Egypt using | | | | has been growing over the past years. While OL |
| Hofstede’s (1980) cultural dimensions highlights | | | | primarily aims to identify the underlying processes |
| the need for a change in network relationships | | | | of learning by clarifying critical issues like the |
| and efforts to build the relational dimension of | | | | content, agents and levels of learning, KM takes a |
| social capital. While the structural and cognitive | | | | proactive role of explicitly providing guidelines for |
| dimensions are already in place, the insubstantiality | | | | active intervention into the organisation’s |
| of the relational dimension and the focus on | | | | knowledge base. Both perspectives have their |
| individual achievement are curtailing members | | | | merits. OL provides a theoretical framework for |
| from sharing their expertise. It is apparent that | | | | analysing changes in the organisational knowledge |
| the lack of trust in getting credit for the | | | | base. This framework can be used to hypothesise |
| information they share makes it hard for them to | | | | and explain cognitive and behavioural changes |
| volunteer their expertise unless instructed to do | | | | within organisations over time. KM serves as a |
| so and unless they feel the risk of not obeying | | | | manager’s framework for improving the |
| commands. | | | | OL’s potential. By guiding managerial |
| It was concluded that the | | | | intervention into the organisation’s knowledge |
| initiative has to start at the top in order for | | | | base, KM serves as a management tool of one of |
| knowledge workers to have confidence in the | | | | the most critical resources of organisational |
| system and to be able to cross the cultural gap | | | | success. |
| between a knowledge-hoarding and a | | | | |